Polyglutamine Diseases Archives |

Snapshot: How does CAG tract length affect ataxia symptom onset?

The instructions our bodies need to grow and function are contained in our genes. These instructions are made up of tiny structures called nucleobases. There are four types of nucleobases in DNA: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T). By putting these four nucleobases in different orders and patterns, this writes the instructions for our body.

artists drawing of a blue DNA molecule — A cartoon strand of DNA. Image by PublicDomainPictures from Pixabay

Some of the genes contain long sections of repeating ‘CAG” instructions, called CAG tracts. Everyone has repeating CAG tracts in these genes, but once they are over a certain length they can lead to disease. Some ataxias are caused by this type of mutation, including SCA1, SCA2, SCA3, SCA6, SCA7 and SCA17. These are often called polyglutamine expansion disorders. This is because “CAG” gives the body instructions to make the amino acid glutamine. You can read more about what is polyglutamine expansion in our past Snapshot about that subject.

For each disorder caused by a CAG expansion mutation, the number of times the CAG is repeated in a particular gene will determine whether someone will develop the disease. Repeat lengths under this number will not cause symptoms and repeat lengths over the threshold will usually lead to ataxia. When someone undergoes genetic testing for ataxia, doctors will be able to tell them the length of these CAG tracts and whether they have a CAG repeat number in one of these genes that is over the threshold. This table gives a summary of different CAG expansion mutations that can lead to ataxia and how the length of the repeat affects age of onset.

	Affected Gene	Normal Repeat Size	Disease Repeat Size
SCA1	ATXN1	6-44	39-88
SCA2	ATXN2	15-31	36-77
SCA3	ATXN3	12-40	55-86
SCA6	CACNA1A	4-18	21-33
SCA7	ATXN7	4-35	37-306
SCA12	PPP2R2B	4-32	66-78
SCA17	TBP	25-42	46-63

For SCA1, SCA2, SCA3, SCA6, and SCA7; longer CAG tracts are associated with earlier onset.

For SCA12, it is hard to predict the age of onset based on repeat length as SCA12 is so rare. Some individuals with long repeats don’t develop ataxia. One study found that longer CAG tract lengths are associated with earlier onset but that it does not affect the severity of symptoms.

For SCA17, Longer CAG tracts have separately been associated with an earlier age of onset and more severe cerebellar atrophy.

In general, people with longer repeat lengths in ataxia genes are likely to present with ataxia symptoms earlier in life. However, it is important to remember that there are many other factors involved. Other genes may have mutations that either worsen the progression of ataxia or protect against more severe symptoms. Therefore, in individual people, the length of the repeat is not always enough information to determine when that person will start showing symptoms, or how severe these symptoms will be.

If you would like more information about the genetic causes of SCAs, including information about genetic testing and what CAG repeat length might mean, take a look at these resources by the National Ataxia Foundation.

Snapshot written by Anna Cook and edited by Larissa Nitschke.

Huntingtin: a new player in the DNA repair arsenal

Written by Dr. Ambika Tewari Edited by Dr. Mónica Bañez-Coronel

Mutations in the Huntingtin protein impair DNA repair causing significant DNA damage and altered gene expression

Our genome houses the entirety of our genetic material which contains the instructions for making the proteins that are essential for all processes in the body. Each cell within our body, from skin cells that provide a crucial protective barrier, immune cells that protect us from invading species and brain cells that allow us to perceive and communicate with the world contains genetic material. During early development in every mammalian species, there is a massive proliferation of cells that allows the development from a one-cell stage embryo to a functional body containing trillions of cells. For this process to occur efficiently and reliably, the instructions contained in our genetic material need to be precisely transmitted during cell division and its integrity maintained during the cell’s life-span to guarantee its proper functioning.

There are many obstacles that hamper the intricate and highly orchestrated sequence of events during development and aging, causing alterations that can lead to cell dysfunction and disease. Internal and external sources of DNA damage constantly bombard the genome. Examples of external sources include ultraviolet radiation and exposure to chemical agents, while internal sources include cell processes that can arise, for example, from the reactive byproducts of metabolism. Fortunately, nature has evolved a special group of proteins known as DNA damage and repair proteins that act as surveyors to detect erroneous messages. These specialized proteins ensure that damage to the DNA molecules that encode our genetic information is not passed to the new generation of cells during cell division or during the expression of our genes, ultimately protecting our genome. Many genetic disorders are caused by mutations in the genetic material. This leads to a dysfunctional RNA or protein with little or no function (loss of function) or an RNA or protein with an entirely new function (gain of function). Since DNA repair proteins play a crucial role in identifying and targeting mistakes made in the message, it stands to reason that impairment in the DNA repair process might lead to disease. In this study, Rui Gao and colleagues through an extensive collaboration sought to understand the connection between altered DNA repair and Huntington’s disease.

Blue strands of DNA — An artist’s rendering of DNA molecules.

Continue reading “Huntingtin: a new player in the DNA repair arsenal”

Snapshot: What is Polyglutamine Expansion?

The information that allows the normal development and functioning of each human being is coded in DNA, which exists in all cells of the body. Several successive segments of DNA make up a gene, with the human body containing approximately 20,000. Every gene has a different arrangement of DNA segments and itself codes for a protein with a specific function. Genes code for proteins in the sequence of their DNA: combination of DNA sequences “code” for different protein precursors called amino acids. Thus, information from DNA (“genes”) codes for amino acids, which come together to form proteins, who function to maintain the normal well-being of the body.

A small number of genes have a small segment of DNA that is repeated successively, usually a couple dozen times, for unknown reasons. When the respective protein is formed, it also possesses a repetition of the same amino acid, corresponding to the repeated DNA segment. These repetitions in proteins have the prefix “poly”, meaning that the amino acids are repeated multiple times in a row, causing an “expansion” in the protein. One of the most common repeated amino acids is called glutamine: hence the name, polyglutamine.

Diagram showing how multiple CAG triplet repeats code for replicates of glutamine to be inserted into a protein — Photo courtesy of NHS HEE Genomics Education Programme.

When there is an increase in the number of repetitions of these segments in DNA, we say that an expansion of the polyglutamine has occurred. When the number of glutamines is increased sufficiently, a disease can develop: we call these disorders “polyglutamine diseases”. Some examples of diseases caused by this polyglutamine expansion are Huntington’s disease, SCA1, SCA2, SCA3, SCA6, and SCA7. The difference between all these diseases is that the expansion of the DNA segment that causes the polyglutamine occurs in different genes. Since these genes are distinct, the way that this expansion interferes with the normal body functioning is also different, giving rise to altered clinical presentations and courses. Moreover, it has been well established that, the larger the number of times that the segment is repeated, the more severe the disease will be. Finally, it has also been observed that throughout each generation, abnormally increased segments tend to become even bigger, making the disease worse.

The discovery of this mechanism of disease has been very important for scientists, since it allows for a “molecular diagnosis” of the disease. Armed with this understanding, research is now focused on understanding this process and finding ways to block the negative effects of polyglutamine expansion.

If you would like to learn more about polyglutamine expansion, take a look at this article.

Snapshot written by Jorge Diogo Da Silva, edited by Dr. Maxime Rousseaux

DNA Damage Repair: A New SCA Disease Paradigm

Written by Dr. Laura Bowie Edited by Dr. Hayley McLoughlin

Researchers use genetics to find new pathways that impact the onset of polyglutamine disease symptoms

The cells of the human body are complex little machines, specifically evolved to fulfill certain roles. Brain cells, or neurons, act differently from skin cells, which, in turn, act differently from muscle cells. The blueprints for all of these cells are encoded in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). To carry out the instructions in these cellular blueprints, the DNA must be made into ribonucleic acid (RNA), which carries the instructions from the DNA to the machinery that makes proteins. Proteins are the primary molecules responsible for the structure, function, and regulation of the body’s organs and tissues. A gene is a unit of DNA that encodes instructions for a heritable characteristic – usually, instructions for a making a particular protein. If there is something wrong at the level of the DNA (known as a mutation) then this can translate to a problem at the level of the protein. This could alter the function of a protein in a detrimental manner – possibly even rendering it totally non-functional.

dna-2358911_1280 — Artist representation of a DNA molecule. Image courtesy of gagnonm1993 on Pixabay.

DNA is made up of smaller building blocks called nucleotides. There are four different nucleotides: cytosine (C), adenine (A), guanine (G), and thymine (T). Polyglutamine diseases, such as the spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) and Huntington’s disease (HD), are caused by a CAG triplet repeat gene expansion, which leads to the expansion of a polyglutamine tract in the protein product of this gene (MacDonald et al., 1993; Zoghbi & Orr, 2000). Beyond a certain tract length, known as the disease “threshold,” the length of this expansion is inversely correlated with age at disease onset. In other words, the longer this expansion is, the earlier those carrying the mutation will develop disease symptoms. However, scientists have determined that onset age is not entirely due to repeat length, since individuals with the same repeat length can have different age of disease symptom onset (Tezenas du Montcel et al., 2014; Wexler et al., 2004). Therefore, other factors must be involved. These factors could be environmental, genetic, or some combination of both.

Continue reading “DNA Damage Repair: A New SCA Disease Paradigm”